PSİKOPAT VE SOSYOPAT NEDİR? ARALARINDAKİ FARKLAR NELERDİR?

Psychology, or psychology,[1] is the science that studies behavior and the mind.[2] Psychology, which includes the study of conscious and unconscious events, as well as more emotions and thoughts, is a very comprehensive scientific field. Those who are experts in this field and also conduct information research are called psychologists. Psychologists seek to understand the emergent properties of the brain and all phenomena associated with these emergent properties, thus joining the larger group of neuroscientific researchers.[3] Although psychology is a social science, it can also be categorized as natural sciences. He especially uses and develops his knowledge of brain biology.[4] Both directly observed behaviors of organisms and complex mental processes such as thinking, visualization, remembering and imagining that cannot be directly observed fall into the field of psychology.[5] On the one hand, internal processes such as perception, attention, emotion, motivation, intelligence, personality; On the one hand, processes of interpersonal relationships (e.g. love, marital harmony and conflict, attachment between mother and child), intra-group (e.g. group conformity and obedience) and intergroup relationship processes (e.g. intergroup prejudice and discrimination, collective action, etc.) .) are the subjects of psychology. Within the science of psychology, the behavior of both humans and animals can be studied. With all these features, psychology is closely related to both natural and medical sciences and social sciences. The aim of psychology is to describe mental processes and behaviors, to explain why and how they occur, to predict how they will change and develop in the future, and to control these processes. In line with these goals, researches are carried out with empirical methods -for example, experimental or correlational methods-. The information produced by the science of psychology is used in many fields related to the evaluation and regulation of human activities. The term ”psychology” was first coined in the 16th century by Marko Marulić[6] as a fusion of the Greek research terms ”ψυχή psiyçē“ soul and ”–λογία –logia“ as soul research.[7][8][9][10 ] It entered Turkish with the translation of the French term psychologie.[5] The concepts of mind and behavior that psychology examines have been the subject of philosophy in ancient Egypt, Iran, Greece, China, and Indian civilizations. However, in the 19th century, psychology, like many other sciences, declared its independence from philosophy.[11] Wilhelm Wundt pioneered the birth of psychology as a branch of science with the psychology laboratory he established at the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1876.[11] Wundt was the first to describe himself as a psychologist. Other names who made the first important contributions to the emergence of psychology as a positive science are: Hermann Ebbinghaus (who did experimental studies on memory), Ivan Pavlov (who for the first time established a relationship between psychology and physiology, he brought the concept of classical conditioning by examining learning processes experimentally), John B. Watson (became the representative of the behavioral approach in the USA). After the development of experimental psychology in Germany and the USA, applied fields of psychology emerged. In the last years of the 19th century, G. Stanley Hall and John Dewey pioneered the applications of psychology in the field of education in the USA. Hugo Münsterberg began to write on the applications of psychology in industry, law and other fields.[12] In the 1890s, Lightner Witmer established the first psychology clinic.[13] In the same years, James McKeen Cattell adapted Francis Galton's anthropometry method to start the first intelligence test applications.[11] On the other hand, in Vienna, Sigmund Freud developed the theory and methods of psychoanalysis that would become very popular over time. In the 20th century, there was a reaction to psychology's study of the mind, which is an abstract and ambiguous concept. The criticisms brought by Edward B. Titchener contributed to the development of John B. Watson's approach to behaviorism. This approach, B.F. It was popularized by Skinner. In this approach, the study of observable and measurable behavior rather than mind is advocated. Towards the end of the 20th century, cognitive sciences, an interdisciplinary field, developed to study the human mind. The mind has again become a popular subject of study in science. approaches Structuralism approach (psychology of consciousness or structuralism) According to this approach, the task of psychology is the study of consciousness and the mental events that make up consciousness - sensations, images, emotions. For these purposes, information is collected by introspection method. Introspection is a method based on giving subjects a stimulus and asking them to describe in great detail what they are feeling. According to the structuralists, consciousness can be decomposed into basic components, just as the water molecule is decomposed into its atomic components (hydrogen and oxygen). Pure sensations such as bitterness-sweetness, cold-warmth, dullness-liveness can be considered as the basic components of consciousness. Two important aspects of structuralism

i representative are Wundt and Titchener. Wundt established a psychology laboratory in Germany, and his student Tichener carried Wundt's approach to psychology to the USA and established a psychology laboratory at Cornell University. Although this approach did not live long after Titchener, this approach is important in the history of psychology in terms of its contribution to laying the foundations of psychology as a positive science.[14] functionalism approach At the beginning of the 20th century, while the structuralism approach lost its effect in the USA, the functionalism approach began to develop. According to this approach, which emerged as a reaction to structuralism, the task of psychology cannot be merely to determine the building blocks of consciousness; Its main task is to examine the functions of consciousness - how it works and what it does - and to deal with how the human mind adapts to changing environmental conditions. From the viewpoint of functionalism, behavior is the organism's effort to adapt to its environment. Functionalists, influenced by Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution, saw the mind as inseparable from the body and focused on understanding the relationship between the two. The principal representative of the theory is William James. According to James, consciousness is not a fixed structure that can be decomposed into its components, as structuralists claim; It is an ongoing flow. The main contribution of this approach to psychology is that it includes not only mental processes but also behaviors in the field of psychology. In addition, since structuralists could not be trained to apply the insight method, they did not study animals, children, and the mentally handicapped, whereas functionalists worked on these groups as well.[14] Today, neither structuralism nor functionalism currents exist, but in the early 20th century, it was possible to emerge contemporary psychology currents thanks to the debates between functionalists and structuralists. Behaviorism approach classical conditioning In this approach, which emerged at the end of the 19th century, it is argued that the subject of psychology should be behaviors that can be measured and observed. Behavior is the response of organisms to internal or external stimuli, and it is necessary to resort to objective methods used in the natural sciences - experimentation and observation - to gather information about behavior. Behaviorists study how the various behaviors of organisms change depending on the rewards and punishments from their environment, how new behaviors are learned or how their current behaviors are adapted to new situations. According to behaviorism, every organism exposed to certain stimuli gives the same response, that is, individual differences do not matter. It is necessary to look for the causes of behavior not in the internal characteristics of the organism, but in the stimuli in the environment. In addition, this approach claims that human and animal behavior are based on the same learning laws. Therefore, by observing animal behavior, it is possible to understand the learning laws that apply to humans as well. The main representatives of this school are: Watson, Skinner, Pavlov. Gestalt approach This approach, which was born in Germany in the 1890s, advocates the view that psychological experience is a whole and cannot be analyzed in isolation, as opposed to structuralism, which tries to analyze psychological experience. According to Gestalts, even the most primitive and simple psychological experiences are complex. Despite this complexity, the realization of perception takes place in accordance with some basic principles, and the goal of psychology is to discover these basic principles. The way to do this is through natural observation and experimentation. Unlike behaviorists, Gestaltists opposed focusing on the effect-response relationship in psychology and cared about examining the cognitive processes experienced while effect turns into reaction. The main representatives of Gestalt psychology are: Wolfgang Köhler, Max Wertemeir, Kurt Koffka. During the Nazi rule in Germany in the 1930s, the main representatives of the Gestaltists immigrated to the USA, so this approach was also recognized in the USA. Today, the basic idea of ​​this approach—the idea that the mind does not directly respond to external stimuli, but primarily interprets and makes sense of it—is evident in cognitive psychologists' ideas about learning, memory, problem solving, and even psychotherapy. psychoanalytic approach According to this approach, which was born in the 1890s, psychology should aim to reveal people's unconscious fears, desires and motives. Developed based on Sigmund Freud's clinical observations, this approach focuses on understanding abnormal behaviors, not understanding normal human behaviors. This approach has been effective in the treatment of mental illnesses, personality and developmental psychology. In this approach, suggestion, therapy, hypnosis, dream interpretation and biography are preferred as research methods. In this approach, the concept of the unconscious is very important. Alfred Adler and Carl Gustav Jung' and Karen Horney were a few important names who continued and renewed this approach, which was founded by Freud.

These three names brought many criticisms to Freud's original theory and created their own theories of personality. Freud is an important popular culture figure today. Many concepts in Freud's theory – such as the unconscious, repression, rationalization… – are embedded in everyday language. On the other hand, scientific studies with a psychoanalytic approach are limited. humanistic approach Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs In this approach, which was born in the middle of the 20th century, attention is drawn to the fact that each individual is free to direct his own future, has a wide personal development capacity, has a significant amount of inner value and the potential for self-realization. It was born as a reaction to the deterministic attitude in behaviorism and psychoanalysis. According to humanists, people are not slaves to environmental and internal factors because they have free will, freedom of choice and the power to control their own behavior. Its main representative is Abraham Maslow. cognitive approach In this approach, which has developed and become widespread since the 1950s, the view that human reactions are passive in the face of stimuli in the environment is opposed, and the human mind is accepted as an active entity that perceives, interprets and gives meaning to stimuli. It is aimed to examine how information is processed and stored in the human mind. For this purpose, data is collected by reasoning, induction and experimentation. One of its important representatives is Jean Piaget. Biological approach (behavioral neuroscience, psychological biology) In this approach, it is argued that in order to understand the causes of behavior, it is necessary to understand the biological structure of the organism. The way genes, hormones and nervous system interact with the external environment elements are examined in order to affect the learning processes of the person, personality, memory, motives, emotions and coping techniques, and the experimental method is used in these studies. sociocultural approach It examines the impact of cultural and ethnic similarities and differences on the mental processes and behavior of members of the culture. Pioneers in psychology Karen Horney is a pioneering female psychologist. In the years when psychology was developed, prejudices against women, as in many different sciences, prevented female scientists from participating in the field. This has led to the fact that the famous representatives of various approaches in psychology are always men. However, despite the obstacles they face, there are women who have made significant contributions to psychology.[15] Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847-1930): She completed her doctorate in psychology at John Hopkins University in the mid-1880s, but 40 years later, it was decided that it was appropriate to confer a doctorate on women, and she was given the title of doctor. She developed a highly regarded evolutionary theory of seeing colors, she. Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939): She was the first woman to earn a doctorate in psychology. She received her PhD from Cornell University. She has studies on animal behavior. Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886-1939): She was one of the first psychologists to focus on child development and women's issues. She has collected data to refute the popular view of the early 1900s that women's abilities decline during menstruation. Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930): became the first female president of the American Psychological Association in 1905. She completed her doctorate at Harvard University. Although she was introduced as one of her most successful students by William James, Harvard University refused to grant her a doctorate because she was a woman. Karen Horney (1885-1952): Focused on the social and cultural traits behind personality. Anna Freud (1895-1982): Anna Freud, the daughter of Sigmund Freud, made important contributions to the treatment of abnormal behavior. Mamie Phipps Clark (1917-1983): She did pioneering work on how a child's skin color affects their perception of racial differences as they grow up. key questions There are a number of fundamental questions that different approaches and branches of psychology seek answers to, and psychological approaches differ in their answers to these fundamental questions. Although they work in very different fields with very different methods, what brings many scientific studies under the general heading of psychology is that they are all about answering these questions in one way or another. Environment or heredity? “How much of our behavior is hereditary and how much is the result of environmental influence?” Psychological approaches have different answers to this question, which has deep philosophical and historical roots. For example, while the biological approach is used to reveal the hereditary aspect of our behavior, the behavioral approach reveals the environmental effect. For this reason, a developmental psychologist who adopts the biological approach will investigate the hereditary factors in the development and change of people, while a developmental psychologist who adopts the behavioral approach will investigate environmental factors. Conscious or unconscious? What is our behavior?

How much of the conscious processes are the result of unconscious processes? This is one of the biggest debates in psychology. While a clinical psychologist who adopts the psychodynamic approach looks for the cause of abnormal behaviors in unconscious forces, a clinical psychologist who adopts the cognitive approach shows faulty thinking processes as causing abnormal behaviors. Which approach is preferred leads to significant differences in the diagnosis and treatment of abnormal behavior. Observable behaviors or internal mental processes? Should psychology examine only externally observable behaviors, or should invisible thought processes also fall within the scope of psychology? Behavioral psychologists' answer to this question is that studying observable behaviors is sufficient to understand human beings. Cognitive psychologists, on the other hand, claim that we cannot understand a person unless we understand what is going on in a person's mind and what kind of internal processes a person reacts to an environmental factor goes through between his perception of that factor and his reaction to it. Free will or determinism? “How much of people's behavior is the result of their own preferences, and how much is determined by factors other than their own preferences?” This issue, which philosophers have been discussing for a long time, is one of the fundamental questions of psychology. Expressed by “determinism”; To reject chance, will, and free choice is to argue that every event in the universe is determined by the conditions that preceded it, and that everything is part of a cause-effect relationship. “To what extent can someone who exhibits abnormal behavior be held responsible for their behavior? If such a person refuses to receive treatment, should he be compelled to receive treatment?” The answers to questions like these depend on the free will-determinism debate. Individual differences or universal principles? “How much of a person's traits and behaviors are unique to him, and how much are common traits he shares with other people? To what extent does the fact that we are all human beings, specimens of the same biological ancestry, make our behaviors and experiences similar? I mean, to what extent are we humans alike, how different are we from each other? Those who adopt biological and behavioral approaches are interested in uncovering the universal principles that make people similar to each other, while those who advocate the existential approach are interested in revealing our individual differences. Basic subdomains experimental psychology It is a branch of science in which basic behavioral processes are examined by using mostly laboratory experiment method. Experimental psychologists also study animal behavior and relate it to human behavior. One of the important sub-branches in experimental psychology; It is cognitive psychology that studies the process of information processing, such as processing information, storing it in our memory, recalling it from storage, and applying it to problem-solving situations. Cognitive psychology; It is closely related to neuroscience, philosophy and linguistics. Practical applications of this field include how to improve memory, improve the accuracy of decision making, or set up educational programs to support learning. Another subfield of experimental psychology is physiological psychology. In physiological psychology, the physiological processes underlying various internal processes (such as sensation, perception, motivation, thinking, memory, ...) and behaviors (such as communication, eating, reading ...) are investigated. social psychology How each individual's feelings, thoughts and behaviors are affected by others; It is a science that examines how a person's behavior is shaped by the common effect of his own personal characteristics and social characteristics. It examines thoughts, feelings and behaviors at the interpersonal, intra-group and intergroup level. personality psychology It is the science that studies what personality is, how it emerges and develops. developmental psychology It is the branch of science that systematically examines age-related behavioral changes, starting from the prenatal period until death. Developmental psychologists divide human life into various periods (prenatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, middle age and old age) and try to reveal the unique characteristics of each period.[16] The topics in which they study development are diverse: the development of people's motor skills, problem-solving skills, moral understanding can be studied, and language acquisition, the formation of self-concept and identity, or emotional development can be the subject of developmental psychologists. neuropsychology It is the science that studies the relationship between biological systems, the function of the mind and behavior. Neuropsychologists study the biochemical mechanisms of the brain, the functions of brain structures, and the effects of chemical and physical changes on behavior and emotions. They deal with the diagnosis and treatment of central nervous system disorders. psychometric psychology Techniques and techniques to be used during the acquisition and application of psychological knowledge

It is the science that develops e-methods. Psychometric psychologists; develop tests of intelligence, personality, abilities, and attitudes. These tests are used in areas such as clinical consulting, business, industry and school. They are also active in research designs, data analysis and data interpretation. Scope of application environmental psychology Examines the interaction of human behavior with the physical environment. It studies both the psychological effects of the environment and the effects of human activities on the social and physical environment.[17] traffic psychology Application of psychology principles to traffic and road safety, psychotechnical evaluation of driver abilities, driving styles and risk-taking behavior in traffic, driver training and rehabilitation, ergonomics, awareness raising for traffic safety, counseling for those who make and apply traffic laws, behavior attitude ability and developing skills assessment tools. health psychology Those working in this field; how people can cope with diseases, how they can control physical pain in the most effective way, why some people do not follow medical recommendations, how people can change their bad health habits, how to organize effective programs and health campaigns on issues such as quitting smoking, losing weight, and controlling stress, It conducts studies based on the knowledge and methods offered by the science of psychology on issues such as how it is possible to establish a good relationship between the patient and the physician and the elimination of the psychological problems of the health personnel in the working environment. clinical psychology It integrates science, theory and practice to understand, predict and reduce problems related to adjustment, disability and discomfort. It supports harmony, adjustment and personal growth. A clinical psychologist focuses on the intellectual, emotional, biological, psychological, social and behavioral aspects of human performance throughout a person's life in different cultures and socioeconomic levels. Counseling Psychology It aims to develop in the individual the knowledge and abilities that can help the individual to make decisions about different aspects of his own life. It is a help service for individuals who talk about normal issues in daily life, have adaptation problems, and have difficulties in making decisions. Counseling is given to people with professional and academic problems. Here, the interests, abilities, orientations and personality traits of the person are taken into consideration. It aims to increase the functionality of interpersonal relationships of individuals. It provides the psychological support they need to individuals who have adaptation problems or who are faced with decision-making difficulties. Deals with mild emotional, personal problems. forensic psychology Those working in this field assist the judge with their expertise in the courts; "Was the criminal sane when he committed the crime?" and “What are the psychological factors affecting fair decision making in the judiciary?” They seek answers within the principles and methods of the science of psychology. Industrial/Organizational psychology It is the science that examines the mental processes and behaviors of people in the context of business life. It aims to use the theoretical approaches and knowledge of psychology to make improvements in business life. I/O psychologists work on issues such as placing suitable personnel for the appropriate job, improving working conditions in workplaces, increasing work motivation, the effect of automation in business life on employees, and the human-machine relationship. Education psychology Those working in this field work on developing successful educational techniques, increasing the quality of student-teacher relations, and giving a fair, educational and motivating form to student evaluation systems. sports psychology Those working in this field examine behavior in the sports environment; It works to increase the sports performance by controlling the psychological characteristics of athletes such as focus, motivation, and mood, and to increase the compatibility and performance of the team by controlling the processes such as leadership, togetherness, conflict and competition in sports teams.[18] Research methods Many different research methods are used in psychology. These methods are primarily divided into two as qualitative and quantitative. Both types of research methods are used in both the basic and applied fields of psychology. Some of the quantitative studies in psychology are experimental or quasi-experimental, while others are relational and descriptive. Many different techniques such as observation, experiment, survey, case study and interview are used to collect data, and the numerical data obtained with these techniques are subjected to statistical analysis and research hypotheses are tested. In qualitative psychology research, unstructured measurement tools are used by a relatively small number of participants.