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Science is a set of intellectual and practical disciplines that foster causality, curiosity and purpose, and systematically examine facts and claims through experimentation, observation and thought.[1] To open a parenthesis, it should be underlined that this definition does not apply to "science". Because while science is concerned with concrete, worldly and universal events, science can also deal with spiritual events, but it does not provide concrete evidence. Philosophers of science classifying science divide science into three as formal, social and natural sciences.[2] The most distinctive characteristic of science from all other disciplines is that it presents its defenses with concrete evidence. And this, as the most reliable discipline, has divided science into many sub-branches until today, leading people to have better living conditions, finding unknown facts and learning new things. All branches of science choose a part of the universe as their subject and try to draw laws based on experimental methods and reality.[3] Einstein defines science as the effort to reconcile the sense data lacking any kind of order with regular thoughts,[4] Bertrand Russell defines it as the effort to find the laws that connect the facts about the world through observation and reasoning based on observation[5].

For centuries, humanity's curiosity about the living environment on earth has begun to take on an activity that will raise living standards. The effort to understand seemingly ordinary events has led to the fact that the world is a place full of mysteries and it is necessary to solve them. Although traditional science needs only understanding and solving, the types of science divided into advanced stages include not only solving but also progress beyond solution. In retrospect, some of the most important branches of science are mathematics, geometry, astronomy and medicine. Since the early days when a wide variety of mathematical analysis systems were developed, new formulas, systems and theories are still being developed, which is an example of the continuity of science.

Science attaches great importance to experiment, and the scientific method is based on experimentation. This phase not only makes the subject more convincing, but also puts it in a certain frame. If a hypothesis (hypothesis) is confirmed as a result of various tests, it can take the status of theory (theory) and become a cornerstone. The change of science in an endless process is an undeniable situation. Science, which was divided into sub-branches over time, took on separate subjects in numerical and social fields; but it continued to serve the same purpose in terms of quality.

From the series of articles
Science

Formal science

Physical sciences

Life sciences

Social and
Behavioral sciences

Applied sciences

Interdisciplinary sciences

The philosophy of science and
history of science
Science portal
Category

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Contents

1 History of Science

1.1 Science in ancient times
1.2 Science and philosophy
1.3 Development of sciences

1.3.1 Astronomy and physics
1.3.2 Chemistry
1.3.3 Mathematics and Geometry
1.3.4 Medicine

1.4 Forensic medicine

1.4.1 Biology

1.5 Pregnancy and fetal development

1.5.1 Sociology
1.5.2 Political science
1.5.3 Psychology
1.5.4 Anthropology

1.6 Towards the Present

1.6.1 Contributing to the modernization of science
1.6.2 Methods used in modernization

2 Classification of sciences
3 Philosophy of Science
4 Scientific method
5 Scientific circles and community

5.1 Sciences
5.2 Institutions
5.3 Write

6 Criticisms and discussions

6.1 Science, pseudoscience and non-science
6.2 Philosophical perspective and focus
6.3 Media and science debate
6.4 Epistemological deficiencies
6.5 Science and religion

7 Bibliography
8 External links

History of Science
Science in ancient times

Aristotle.

It is known that science emerged before writing.[6] For this reason, archeology has an important place in examining scientific discoveries, views and discoveries, especially in ancient times. For example, when various archaeological discoveries were examined, it was determined that people in prehistoric times made various observations; For example, they followed the seasons. Various finds found in Africa, originating from 35000 BC to 20000 BC[7], bear the traces of various attempts to measure time.[8]

However, besides the technological development, it has been determined that scientific activities intensified and gained momentum especially around 2500 BC.[6] Many architectural examples of this can still be seen today; Great structures such as Stonehenge are monuments that cannot be built without certain scientific and technological development, especially various advanced mathematical knowledge. [6] For example, most structures from this period were structures that could not have been built without at least the Pythagorean theory; Based on this and other similar findings, it was determined that the Pythagorean theory was known to people thousands of years before Pythagoras.[6] As a matter of fact, mathematical activities are seen in many nations, such as the ancient Egyptians, at very early dates. Just as the ancient Egyptians produced a 365-day calendar in 4200 BC, it was seen that a system was used to express millions numerically in a mace dated 3100 BC.[9] The existence of mathematical activity and development in ancient Mesopotamia is known with the help of clay tablets obtained from archaeological research.[10] Evidence of mathematical activity remained from almost all of the different kingdoms that came to power over time in Mesopotamia; It belongs to the Sumerians from the 3rd millennium BC, the Akkadian and Babylonian from the 2nd millennium BC, and the Assyrians from the 1st millennium BC.[10] In addition to these, there are also findings from the 6th century BC to the 4th century BC belonging to the Persians, who later dominated the region.[10] Mathematical activities in Mesopotamia were very diverse and often went beyond practical problems; Algebra studies including the solution of linear and quadratic equations and various number theory studies have been carried out.[10] In addition to these, the number system has been developed by different kingdoms in these lands over time. The Sumerians laid the foundations for and used a decimal number system similar to that used by the ancient Egyptians.[10] This system was developed by different powers in later periods, and a system based on 60 was reached by the Babylonians.[10]

Archimedes' screw

It is known that mathematics was dealt with and mathematical calculations were made in the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd millennium BC.[11] In addition, this mathematical activity largely included subjects such as measuring rulers, weights and measurements in general.[12] It has been suggested that the mathematical activities in this period were also related to astronomy in general.[11]

As a matter of fact, astronomy studies, which have religious aspects and are often done together with other branches of science such as mathematics, have a great importance and place in ancient times.[6] Mathematical manifestations of astronomy-related phenomena are encountered in scientific activities in ancient Mesopotamia.[6] While there were astronomy activities to meet the calendar needs in China, calculations were made regarding the cycles and positions of the planets by using mathematical developments in Mesopotamia.[6] Apart from the mathematical development, the study and understanding of astronomy found its place in the Maya civilization based in Central America; especially calendrical studies and calculation of solar and lunar eclipses took an important place.[6]

It is possible to find the origins of sciences other than these in ancient times. For example, biology played an important role in the social sense long before the development of civilization, there were various developments especially in terms of agriculture, and people domesticated many animals.[13] Many things have been discovered as a result of the study of plants; For example, archaeological findings discovered that the Babylonian date palms reproduced sexually, and they proved that pollen is masculine and that reproduction can be achieved by transferring pollen to female plants.[13] In ancient times, medical studies were also carried out along with biology, and various civilizations in China, Egypt and the Indian subcontinent used different medicinal plants for certain medical and anatomical problems, and they also expressed these uses in writing from time to time.[13] In addition to medicine, sciences such as chemistry, geography and geology were also developed to a great extent, especially in China.[6]

Science and philosophy

The philosophers in the early ages trying to understand the world and the environment, feelings of curiosity, led to the emergence of certain criteria and their transformation into various ideologies. Until the foundations of science were laid, the phenomenon of discussion and experimentation was developed by people and this turned into a quest. In the early periods, there was no clear distinction between philosophy and science, and many great scientists were also philosophers. The fact that the experiment and the result have become a cliché has enabled science to reach a desirable level. Science, which progressed until the 19th century, actually fought a war within itself, and many original researchers were defeated by medieval leaders who acted with straight logic. Galileo, who had different ideas from Aristotle's physics, began to contradict the scientists of his time. Science has constantly witnessed such scenes throughout its history, and laws that collapsed as a result of experimentation and observation have been replaced by others.

Philosophy that inquires into reality and the purpose of existence requires systematic thinking. Starting with the philosophy of classical antiquity, Thales,[14] Anaximenes,[15] Pythagoras,[16] Democritus,[17] Gorgias,[18] Empedocles,[19] Heraclitus,[20] Parmanides,[21] Socrates,Ploti Philosophers such as nos,[22] Plato,[23] and Aristotle[24] helped shape philosophical questions that were gradually developing and taking shape. In the religion-oriented medieval philosophy, philosophy, which Christianity used as a tool for itself, was used extensively in the axes of God, knowledge and belief. In the philosophy made in the Age of Enlightenment, reason came to the fore. The basic view in the thought system is to move towards the exact truths and knowledge illuminated by the human mind. Renaissance philosophy, known as the philosophy of the transition period, covers a period in which new developments in science and thought system took place. The renaissance, which means rebirth, is a bridge to a very different system of thought from previous ages.

The separation of science and philosophy has become more evident as we approach the modern age, however, philosophy and science have not completely separated from each other, and both philosophy of science, which is the philosophy of science in general, and branches of philosophy in which the branches of science are examined philosophically (for example, the philosophy of physics) continue to exist and both science and technology continue to exist. plays important roles in the fields of philosophy as well as in philosophy.

Development of branches of science
Astronomy and physics

The equation discovered by Albert Einstein.
Simple drawing of a non-rotating black hole

Astronomy is one of the oldest branches of science, and it is a science that was practiced in the most intense sense, especially in ancient times, and is seen as the mother of sciences.[6] People's interest in the sky pushed them to examine the objects suspended above, and these observations became more effective with the invention of the telescope. Compared to the Babylonian factional astronomers, Greek astronomers assimilated mathematical details and formed the basic points in the development of this science.

Ptolemy, who lived in Egypt under the rule of the Roman Empire, has an important position especially in the history of astronomy and in the history of science in general. His work on astronomy, Hè Megalè Syntaxis, or "The Great Collection", which would later be referred to as al-Majisti by Islamic astronomers, was a widely accepted astronomical work during the Middle Ages, and Ptolemy as its author was brought to an almost mythical status.[25] Ptolemy's model of the universe was geocentric, that is, geocentric, and the transition from this system, which had been accepted for many years, to a heliocentric system caused controversy.

Radiography

Nicholas Copernicus, a Polish astronomer, declared that the earth and other planets revolve around the sun; He proposed a heliocentric, that is, heliocentric system. He introduced the system of Copernicus to his friends with a treatise called Commentariolus, and later, Pope III. He explained it in detail in his masterpiece, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, which he dedicated to Paulus. This led to the opening of a new era in the science of astronomy. The Italian scientist Galileo Galilei, known for his development of the telescope, his astronomical observations and his support for Copernicus' system, is also an important person in the history of astronomy and physics, and has been referred to as the father of modern observational astronomy[26] and the father of modern physics[27] over time. . Mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton, who built the first reflecting telescope in 1671, contributed a lot to the development of the branches of science he dealt with, and laid the foundations of differential and integral calculus. In addition, Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica), which was published on 5 July 1687, contains important topics such as Newton's laws of motion and gravity, which form the foundations of classical mechanics. German theoretical physicist Albert Einstein proved that energy is equal to the square of the speed of light with the formula E = mc². He proved the existence of the atom with the brown motion by proving that mass bends spacetime and that time, space and motion are interdependent with the general theory of relativity and the theory of relativity. The evolution of Physics, co-written with Leopold Infeld, includes topics such as quantum and space.

Chemistry

Bunsen burner.

Chemistry is a branch of science that studies the structure and behavior of matter. It may involve seeing if there are any chemical reactions going on. Physical chemistry, biochemistry, analytical chemistry, inorganic chemistry and organic chemistry are the basic branches. The most well-known branch of chemistry, which is the assistant of many branches of science such as medicine, is organic chemistry, due to its use in the fields of food, medicine, paint, cosmetics and textiles.

In ancient times, matter was thought to be composed of certain basic elements, and in many cultures these included air, water, fire, and earth. However, some of the ancient Greek philosophers put forward the idea of ​​atom and suggested that everything is made up of very small building blocks. These philosophers were later called atomic philosophers. Since ancient times, people have been dealing with metallurgy, chemical events in the production of various goods and their products. they were using; for example in the manufacture of articles of glass. The alchemical tradition emerged towards the Middle Ages. The tradition of alchemy is the predecessor of chemistry and consists of a mixture of elements such as mysticism, philosophy and various chemical studies.

In time, the interest in alchemy became more scientific and the science of chemistry emerged apart from alchemy. Robert Boyle is a person who made important contributions to the separation of modern chemistry from alchemy and laying its foundations. Boyle, who is known today especially for Boyle's law, which he named after, was a scientist who defended the atomist idea. The French scientist Antoine Lavoisier, on the other hand, took an important step in the history of both chemistry and science with the law of conservation of mass, and was also known as the father of chemistry.[28] He is also the one who detects and names oxygen and hydrogen. Until the beginning of the 19th century, the induction aspect of chemistry, unlike other physical sciences, was more dominant than the deduction aspect, causing it to be closer to the biological sciences. However, Wilhelm Ostwald[29], Van't Hoff[30] and Arrhenius[31] had a great share in the emergence of a new branch of science, namely physical chemistry, as a result of the application of mathematical and physical methods to chemistry. Physical chemistry, which deals with the physical changes of chemical substances and the explanation of physical events by utilizing the properties of chemical substances and is divided into branches such as electrochemistry, colloid chemistry, nuclear chemistry and polymer chemistry, became a separate branch from chemistry in the world of science with the publication of Zeitschrift Für Physikalische Chemie in 1881. has taken its place.

A modern chemistry laboratory

People's curiosity for learning and research led to the emergence of analytical (analytical) chemistry over time, which paved the way for the development of coordination chemistry and industrial analytical chemistry over time. The discovery of analytical methods has expanded the use of chemistry in medicine, biology and genetics. With the discovery of penicillin and vitamins, the fact that chemistry increases the quality of life of people, as well as the use of developing technology in production processes, caused environmental problems, which resulted in the reckless consumption of natural resources. For this reason, sub-disciplines such as environmental chemistry and water chemistry have also developed.

Math and Geometry

Albert Einstein

It is known that mathematics played an important role in scientific activities in ancient times, and various tribes such as ancient Egyptians, Mesopotamians and Indians were engaged in mathematics.

As one of the most important names in Greek mathematics, Tales learned geometry during his stay in Egypt and taught this science to those around him, and the development continued. Known as the father of numbers, Pythagoras' famous theorem[32] made him a prominent place among the greatest scientists of his time.

A yupana ("counting instrument" in Quechua); A type of calculator used by the Incas. According to the estimations of the researchers, calculations in this instrument were based on Fibonacci numbers.[33]

12. Another mathematician, Ömer Hayyam, who lived in the 19th century, criticized Euclid's work and laid the foundations of analytical geometry and non-Euclidean geometry. He was also the first mathematician to bring a general, geometric solution to cubic equations.[34]

One of the most important mathematicians in the West in the Middle Ages was Fibonacci. He introduced the Fibonacci Arabic numeral system to Europe and paved the way for its spread, and popularized the sequence of numbers known today as Fibonacci numbers. In fact, he was not the first to discover this number sequence, but it was used as an example in his book and later gained fame in the West.[35][36]

The seven bridges of Königsberg problem put forward by Euler formed the basis of graph theory.

17. Mathematics was on the rise in the West in the 18th and 18th centuries, and many important mathematical discoveries were made. Scotsman John Napier researched natural logarithms, Kepler revealed the mathematical laws of planetary motions, René Descartes developed the Cartesian coordinate system, which is still used today, and thus analytical geometry. The German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz developed calculus with his many studies on calculus and laid the foundations of the notation used in calculus today. Pierre de Fermat and Blaise Pascal laid the foundation for probability theory and thus discovered the related rules of combinatorics. Pascal is also the developer and father of Pascal's theory and Pascal's triangle (although it was known and used in the East before him[37]). In the 18th century, mathematician Leonhard Euler developed the concept of function and numerous notations in mathematics (for example, the notation e as the base of the natural logarithm). He gave important works in various fields such as number theory, graph theory, geometry, and made important inventions.

19. The German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss, who lived in the 19th century, achieved important successes both in mathematics and in many other sciences; He proved the basic theory of algebra (or the fundamental theorem of algebra), put forward and proved the Theorema Egregium, and had important work on functions with complex variables. George Boole, who also lived in the 19th century, introduced a new type of algebra, Boolean algebra, of which he was the father.

Medicine

The heart is located in the center of the chest. Muscle mass is greater on the left side and is pointed from the apex of the heart to the left.

The first developments of science in the field of medicine took place in the Asian continent. Medicine began to develop systematically in India, Egypt, China, Iran and Greece, and the developments in the field of health, which is one of the biggest problems of humanity as a branch of science, continued for centuries.

Medicine and dentistry have existed on the Indian peninsula since the Indus Valley civilization. Indeed, Ayurveda, the Indian medical tradition, exists alongside contemporary medicine even today. Ayurveda, which was the basic medicine system in the region until the British colonized the Indian subcontinent, used mercury-sulfur based drugs in its early periods. Apart from this, various herbs such as turmeric, which are known for various medicinal benefits today, have also been used in classical Indian medicine for treatments.

There is a traditional medical tradition in China that has survived from ancient times to the present. Traditional Chinese medicine, the result of Chinese thought and empirical observation of disease and ailment by Taoist physicians, has a wide variety of practical methods such as herbal therapy, acupuncture, and massage. Apart from these, mental therapies such as nutritional therapy and Feng Shui are also included in traditional Chinese medicine.

The fact that Hippocrates started to apply treatment methods with proven curative effects, instead of offering a cure full of magic and superstitions, led to the understanding of the importance of the patient in medical science. The treatment methods, which initially differed according to the regions, have begun to modernize in the last two centuries and have turned into a common effort in general. Medical science, which has made more progress after the epidemics in Europe, has reached very high levels with the development of genetic studies today.

Forensic medicine

Main article: Forensic science
Fingerprints taken by Herschel in 1859-1860.

Forensics is a scientific process used as part of a criminal or murder investigation, and forensic science is considered criminology. This encompasses both the brutal, horrifying procedures of the autopsy room and the ultimate analysis of a crime scene.

But it also encompasses less glamorous, painstaking lab work like DNA profiling, fingerprint analysis, and uncovering confidential digital files. Even a field called forensic accounting has emerged.[38]

There were important medical discoveries in the Middle Ages and later in the West. While Garcia de Orta emerged as a pioneer of tropical medicine and correctly described most tropical diseases, especially cholera, William Harvey was the first Westerner in the West to accurately and fully explain blood circulation. Later, in the 19th century, Louis Pasteur found the first successful rabies vaccine and introduced the pasteurization process that would take his name for the first time. Louis Pasteur is also considered one of the fathers of microbiology, along with Robert Koch and Ferdinand Cohn. Robert Koch, Nobel Prize winner in 1905, was also the first to isolate important disease-causing bacteria such as Tuberculosis bacillus and Vibrio cholera. He developed the Koch postulates, which would later be named after him.

Biology

Biology is the study of the human body and living organisms. Developing as a branch of science with its current sub-branches until the 19th century, biology is a system that examines all the properties of living things. It is divided into sub-branches such as botany, which studies plants, especially humans, zoology, which studies animals, and microbiology (cell), which studies microorganisms.

Aristotle made many studies on nature, examined and categorized many plant and animal species. Aristotle's views, along with the additions made by some scientists after him, became an authority for a long time, especially in the West. In the Middle Ages, Muslim scientists such as Ibn Nafis, Ibn Jahiz and Ibn Baytar contributed to the branch of biology. Ibn Jahiz, who especially contributed to early evolutionary thinking[39], was the first to introduce the idea of ​​a food chain.[40] El-Dinaveri, who lived in the 9th century, studied the evolution of plants and the development of plants and contributed to botanical science by defining many species in his book called Kitab'ün-Nebat.[41] Ibn Baytar, who was a student of another scientist, al-Nabati, related to pharmacy (farm. He wrote an encyclopedia (aceutical) and described many herbs, foods, and medicines in his work. The Latin translation of this work was later used by European scholars in the 18th and 19th centuries.[42] Ibn Nefis correctly identified the pulmonary[43] and coronary circulation[44][45] and defined the concept of metabolism.[46]

cell types

The modern theory of evolution, considered one of the foundations of biology, is built on the views of Charles Darwin[47]. Darwin expressed his views in The Origin of Species[48], The Descent of Man, and the Selection of Gender[49][50], The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals [51]. Gregor Mendel, who laid the foundations of genetic science by pairing the peas in the monastery garden with each other, formed the building blocks of classical genetic laws.

Pregnancy and fetal development

Main articles: Human embryonic development, Prenatal development, and Fetus
Early stages of amniotic embryogenesis

The sperm and egg cell released from one of the female's two ovaries unite in one of the two Fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg, known as the zygote, then moves into the uterus, a journey that can take up to a week to complete. Cell division begins approximately 24 to 36 hours after the union of female and male cells. Cell division continues at a rapid rate and the cells then develop into what is known as a blastocyst. The blastocyst reaches the uterus and attaches to the uterine wall, a process known as implantation.

The modern theory of evolution, considered one of the foundations of biology, is built on the views of Charles Darwin[47]. Darwin expressed his views in The Origin of Species[48], The Descent of Man, and the Selection of Gender[49][50], The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals [51]. Gregor Mendel, who laid the foundations of genetic science by pairing the peas in the monastery garden with each other, formed the building blocks of classical genetic laws. The development of the cell mass that will become a baby is called embryogenesis in the first ten weeks of pregnancy. During this time, cells begin to differentiate into various body systems. The basic lines of the organ, body and nervous systems have been established. At the end of the embryonic stage, the beginning of features such as fingers, eyes, mouth and ears become visible. Also during this time there is the development of structures that are important for supporting the embryo, including the placenta and umbilical cord. The placenta attaches the developing embryo to the uterine wall, allowing nutrient uptake, excretion of waste, and gas exchange through the mother's blood. The umbilical cord is the connecting cable from the embryo or fetus to the placenta.

After about ten weeks of gestational age (same as eight weeks after conception), the embryo is known as a fetus.[52] At the beginning of the fetal stage, the risk of miscarriage decreases sharply.[53] At this stage, a fetus is about 30 mm (1.2 inches) long, the heartbeat is seen via ultrasound and the fetus makes involuntary movements.[54] During ongoing fetal development, early body systems and structures established in the embryonic stage continue to develop. The genitals begin to emerge in the third month of pregnancy. Although most of the physical growth takes place in the last weeks of pregnancy, the fetus continues to grow in both weight and length.

The development of the cell mass that will become a baby is called embryogenesis in the first ten weeks of pregnancy. During this time, cells begin to differentiate into various body systems. The basic lines of the organ, body and nervous systems have been established. At the end of the embryonic stage, the beginning of features such as fingers, eyes, mouth and ears become visible. Also during this time there is the development of structures that are important for supporting the embryo, including the placenta and umbilical cord. The placenta attaches the developing embryo to the uterine wall, allowing nutrient uptake, excretion of waste, and gas exchange through the mother's blood. The umbilical cord is the connecting cable from the embryo or fetus to the placenta.

Embroidery 4 weeks after fertilization

Fetus 8 weeks after fertilization

Fetus 18 weeks after fertilization

Fetus 38 weeks after fertilization

1. relative size in month (simplified example)

3. relative size in month (simplified example)

5. relative size in month (simplified example)

9. relative size in month (simplified example)

Auguste Comte

Sociology

Although it is defined as a relatively new branch of science compared to other disciplines, sociological studies and observations have existed since ancient times. It is possible to come across sociological observations and evaluations in the works of names such as Herodotus and Thucydidis.

Although the term sociology was used before it,[55] independently coined the term[56] and described sociology as the 'queen of the positive sciences'. Seeing k[56], the name known as the father of sociology over time is Auguste Comte.[56] However, Comte is not generally seen as the founder of sociology.[57] The first names dealing with sociology in the West were generally influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution, and they were comparing living organisms and society, especially analogically.[57] To give examples of these names, names such as Herbert Spencer and Lewis Henry Morgan can be mentioned.[57] Classical sociologists such as Émile Durkheim, Vilfredo Pareto, and Max Weber made important contributions to science in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Political science

Isaac Newton

Political science has developed together with political activities since ancient times and has become an important branch of social science. From the Vedic texts of ancient India to various later Buddhist texts, there are studies and studies of politics. The Indian political thinker Chanakya (350-283 BC) is best known for his Arthashastra, which deals with issues such as political thought, economy, and social order. Similarly, many political ideas are found in Ancient Greece; A wide variety of political ideas and studies can be found both in the works of early writers such as Homer, Hesiod and Thucydides, and in the works of philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. In his work called The State, Plato explained and examined the ideal political structure and administration.

During the Italian renaissance, writer Niccolò Machiavelli came to an important place in the history of political science with his work The Prince (Il Principe). In the work, it is explained what the ruler who comes to power in different situations should prioritize according to each situation and what kind of policy he should follow. Many different forms of political power and state structures were defended by different names in the Middle Ages and beyond. For example, the French jurist Jean Bodin is known for his work called Six Books on the State (Les Six livres de la République), which he wrote on power and the state, and vigorously defended absolutism.

Political science as a science began to be structured academically, especially in the 19th century, the first political science school (department) was established in the USA in 1880, and then the American Political Science Association was established in 1903. Academic studies on political science continued increasingly, and political science departments were opened in many different universities.

Psychology

The Biopsychosocial Model

Many of the concepts, events and phenomena that are the subject of psychology today have also received philosophical attention in civilizations such as ancient India, China and Egypt.

The philosopher René Descartes contributed to the formation of the foundations of the modern philosophical form of psychology in the West.[58] Descartes, who deals with important psychological issues in his various works, is known to have done various anatomy studies even though he was not a physician. British physician Thomas Willis, on the other hand, played an important role in the emergence of psychology as a medical discipline, and made great contributions to psychology with his intense anatomical studies, whether it was an approach to psychology in line with brain functions. In addition, philosophers such as John Locke and David Hume had a great influence on the later development of experimental psychology.[58]

The branches such as hypnotism and phrenology, which emerged as we approached the modern age and emerged as a treatment especially in cases of psychological disorders, became the subject of discussion; In particular, it has been discussed whether these are really effective methods and whether they have any scientific basis. The German experimental psychology movement that emerged later made important contributions to psychology. The anatomical and physiological discoveries that took place at this time, especially regarding the neurological structure, had a positive effect on psychology. German physician Wilhelm Wundt broke new ground by opening the first experimental psychology laboratory in 1879.[59] Beginning in the 1890s, Austrian physician Sigmund Freud brought a new direction to psychology with what he called psychoanalysis. Although the scientific position of psychoanalysis is still controversial,[60][61] various propositions and concepts of psychoanalysis have gained an important place in Western culture in general. Again in the 1890s, Ivan Pavlov successfully demonstrated classical conditioning with his experiments on dogs. As a matter of fact, later on, various animals such as non-human primates, cats and dogs were used in psychology experiments.

Anthropology

Although the origin of anthropology is associated with the Enlightenment process in the West and the early modern ideas that followed, research on the topics included in anthropology today was conducted long before these periods. For example, al-Biruni has done a lot of research on the peoples, customs, and religions of the Indian subcontinent, and has a wide variety of research and work that goes into the field of anthropology in general. He was sometimes called the "first anthropologist" as a result of his research.[62]

As an institution, the development of anthropology emerged from natural history and included the study of life, indigenous peoples and the facts about them (such as culture, language, religion) especially in colonies under the control of European powers. Anthropology developed in the 19th century, and was particularly influenced by scientific developments in the 1860s, particularly in branches such as biology and philology.[63] British Edward Burnett Tylor, one of the leading anthropologists, made anthropological inferences based on Darwin's theory of evolution and argued that the development of civilization and the development of cognition are directly proportional.[63] In addition, he saw some modern rural or hunter-gatherer peoples behind in terms of evolutionary development and regarded them as primitive, that is, "primitive".[63] In the 19th and early 20th centuries, anthropology continued to focus on peoples who were seen as relatively socially less developed.[63] In the second half of the 20th century, anthropologists began to deal with more complex structures in Third World countries, and later on, with the 1970s, they began to study contemporary Western countries anthropologically, which was a big step for anthropology.[63] In anthropological studies focusing on contemporary European and North American countries, both society in general and ethnic and religious minorities have been the subject;[63][64] some of which are Western, colonial anthropology studies the West, and Western perspectives and convictions are constantly tested by non-Westerns. It has been interpreted as turning into a branch.[63]

To the present

Carl Sagan

1. in: A. Piccard, E. Henriot, P. Ehrenfest, E. Herzen, Th. De Donder, E. Schrodinger, E. Verschaffelt, W. Pauli, W. Heisenberg, R.H. Fowler, L. Brillouin,

2. row: P. Debye, M. Knudsen, W.L. Bragg, H.A. Kramers, P.A.M. Dirac, A.H. Compton, L. de Broglie, M. Born, N. Bohr,

3. row: I. Langmuir, M. Planck, M. Curie, H.A. Lorentz, A. Einstein, P. Langevin, Ch. E. Guye, C.T.R. Wilson, O.W. Richardson Since the beginning of the 20th century, advances in science have gained great momentum and the academic environment's attainment of a more favorable research environment has triggered this progress. Dealing with science has become a prestige and has begun to show its effects. The Nobel Prizes, which have been given since 1901 upon the will of Alfred Nobel, show the prestige aspect of science.[65][66] With this type of awards, incentives for science are increased and the necessary funds are tried to be provided for research.

Contributors to the modernization of science

The contributions of Marie Curie, the founder of radiology, to science had great repercussions in the field of chemistry. His work in radioactivity earned him the Nobel Prize in physics in 1903 and in chemistry in 1911.[67][68] Albert Einstein's articles on the formation and transformation of Light,[69] A new determination of molecular sizes[70] and Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies[71], published in the German journal Annalen der Pysik, opened a new page for the science of physics. General relativity and Special relativity are considered to be among the most complex and mysterious theories presented to physics by Einstein. Although it still causes controversy, Einstein, who is considered one of the most important scientists of the century, was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921 for his explanation of the photoelectric effect phenomenon.[72][73]

20. Godel, who changed the direction of 21st century mathematics

Contributions to mathematics since his childhood made Carl Friedrich Gauss one of the building blocks of this science.[74] Gauss made important contributions to number theory, analysis, differential geometry, geodesy, magnetism and astronomy. Progress in mathematics started to take a different form after Gauss and the theory of relativity developed thanks to the geometry created by Bernhard Riemann, one of his students.[75]

20. In the century Srinivasa Aiyangar Ramanujan developed over 3000 theories; He made important discoveries in many different branches of mathematics such as hypergeometric series, prime number theory, gamma function. Kurt Godel's Incompleteness Theorem has a very important place in mathematics. Godel stated the theorem that changed the mathematics perspective of the 20th century in his doctoral article titled On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Systems Like Principia Mathematica. In general, in the 20th century, many new branches of mathematics and fields of study such as complexity theory, game theory, and topology have emerged.

Scientists Francis Crick[76], James Dewey Watson[77] and Maurice Wilkins[78], who discovered the structure of DNA in 1953, contributed greatly to the developments in the field of genetics. The solution of DNA, which carries genetic information, is one of the most important scientific studies of the century. With the progress of genetics in new technological conditions, the disease It will be possible to detect the lights before they occur.

Methods used in modernization

Stereoscopic microscopes

With the advancement of science, the necessary mechanisms have increased and new methods have emerged. Technology, which has started to be used in almost every field, has become one of the biggest helpers of digital sciences. Technology has a great role in the recent progress in medicine, genetics and molecular biology. Although the simple devices used in physics and chemistry laboratories helped to form the foundation stones in the early times, the use of the highest level tools of the new era science accelerated the progress and made it daily.

Electron microscopes created with the development of the microscope are an important advance in terms of scientific tool. The systematic order, which increases with the formation of the conditions, not only contributes to the progress of science, but also brings important developments in humanity. The evolution of the telescope[79] since its early days has allowed us to reach the depths of space and helped us unravel the secrets in the dark unknown. The development of computer technology creates another set of systems that fall into the utility of science. Easy access to analyzes and document lines facilitated by the help of computers saves time in scientific studies. This time saving is an important factor in the field of medicine, it is very important to diagnose diseases and develop treatment methods immediately.

Classification of sciences

Father of Science Galileo Galilei
Portrait of the English philosopher Francis Bacon

Classification of sciences (or classification of sciences) has an important place especially in philosophy of science, many philosophers have reached different classifications of sciences based on different foundations. The classification of sciences has found a place for itself both in Ancient Greek philosophy and in the Peripatetic school of Islamic philosophy, which later developed the foundations of this philosophy. Aristotle, dealing with the classification of sciences, argued that philosophy is the most basic science, and that sciences can be evaluated in three main categories in general.

The philosopher Francis Bacon also touched upon the classification of the sciences, and while classifying the sciences, he based it on the human faculties ("human faculties") with which he relates. Accordingly, the three basic human abilities are "memory", "imagination" and "mind". While memory corresponds to historical sciences, imagination corresponds to poetic sciences and reason to philosophy.[80] Bacon's classification has been interpreted as a psychology-based classification because of the fundamentals he dealt with.[80] Bacon's distinction has been influential in science classification studies as well as encyclopedic studies that emerged later on; for example, French encyclopedists (tradition) used Bacon's classification.[80]

One of the most comprehensive and important classifications of science towards the modern age was made by the American philosopher and scientist C. S. Peirce.[80] Peirce established a system in science classification parallel to that used in the classification of species: clade, class, order, family, genus, and species.[81] For example, in his 1902 classification, Arithmetic is one of the subsets of the Infinite Collections team in the Mathematics class of Theoretical as a science.[81] In this classification, there are two main branches and the concept of science is divided into these two main branches: Theoretical and Practical. Later, these two branches are divided into other sub-branches and the classification continues with classes and teams.[81] Its scientific classification in 1903 is similar but different; all separations are tripartite and especially influenced by Comte's scientific classification.[81]

Today, there is no generally accepted classification of science (ie, classification of sciences);[80] as a matter of fact, some philosophers have suggested that there are various problems with the idea of ​​classification of science.[80] Studies and interest in the classification of the sciences also largely ceased at the beginning of the 20th century.[80] In the teaching and production of science, in the separation of administrative units, contemporary universities usually identify several majors and study the related sciences under these branches: natural sciences, social sciences, technology (which often includes engineering) and arts and humanities; often medicine also takes place in this branch as a branch on its own.[80]

The philosophy of science

Main article: Philosophy of science

The philosophy of science is the name given to the branch of philosophy that philosophically examines the contents, foundations, results, applications of the concept of science or branches of science, and the approaches and methods related to them.[82] Philosophy of science, which has an important place in the history of science in particular, may be associated with the concept of "science" in general, or it may be associated with a specific branch of science (for example, philosophy of biology,[83] philosophy of physics,[84] philosophy of chemistry[85]). .[86]

It is also possible to define the philosophy of science more subjectively; As a matter of fact, different currents within the philosophy of science have defined the philosophy of science differently.[86][87] The mixed application of science and philosophy at the beginning of the history of science, many philosophers being scientists at the same time, and the fact that philosophical works also contain scientific findings and theories came to an end towards the modern age, and science and philosophy began to separate well. The philosophy of science, as understood today, can be said to have started after this separation, when philosophy and philosophers dealt with the concept of science from a rational point of view.[87] Throughout history, many theories of science have been developed that form the basis of the history and development of philosophy of science today. Apart from these, different currents and thoughts about the nature of science have found a place in the history of philosophy of science. For example, while some philosophers and movements such as positivism claimed that science is a product of nature and human mental studies, some philosophers and movements, on the other hand, argued that science is a kind of human activity based on time, space and society, for example Thomas Kuhn and Jürgen Habermas. they emphasized the historical and social relations of science and new understandings of the history of science and definitions of science based on these.[87][88][89] Although the positivist understanding among different scientific understandings was generally accepted for a while, it was seriously questioned and criticized in the second half of the 20th century, the general opinion about it changed, and contemporary positivism gave up some of its extreme discourses and started to adopt a more middle way.[82][86][82][86] 87] As a matter of fact, the emergence and effects of postmodernism are against modernist positivism and have an important place in contemporary philosophy of science.[82]

Scientific method, scientific findings and concepts used in sciences have also been the subject of science philosophy. For example, what exactly scientific laws are, how they should be defined, and how, if any, true scientific laws should be differentiated from accidental, objectively inaccurate generalizations have been discussed within the philosophy of science.[86][87]

Science philosophers state that science has the following features:

Science is factual. Science examines statements that can be verified by referring to facts.[87][90]
Science is logical. Scientific statements should be non-contradictory statements reached with logically correct inferences.[87][90]
Science is objective. Science deals with objective statements, not subjective statements.[87][90]
Science is critical. Every existing theory in science can be refuted or modified in the light of new facts; each theory can be replaced by another theory.[87][90]
Science is generalist. Science does not make observations about all phenomena; tries to find general rules and relations about them.[87][90]
Science is selective. Science does not deal with all kinds of facts, but only with important facts.[87][90]

Other than these features, it is stated that science is based on certain beliefs:

Science is realist. Accordingly, the external world is independent of the subject and is real.[90]
Science is rationalist. Accordingly, the world is an intelligible and rational world. For this reason, it has an order that is suitable for understanding the facts through the mind.[90]
Science is causal. Accordingly, everything in nature has a cause, and there is a cause-effect relationship between all phenomena in nature.[90]
Science is quantitative. Accordingly, everything that exists is measurable.[90]

Scientific method

Main article: Scientific method
A diagram summarizing the scientific method

The scientific method is the name given to the whole of the methods used to obtain various new information or to confirm or correct some known information, to investigate various phenomena, and to complete the knowledge gained in the past. The scientific method(s) is based on the examination of observable, empirical (empirical) and measurable evidence with certain logical principles[91]. The scientific method is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as:

« It is a method of judgment that has characterized the natural sciences since the 17th century, which includes the systemic observation, measurement, and experimentation, and formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.[92] »

The scientific method differs from some other methods of acquiring knowledge in that it is based on science, experimentation and logic. Likewise, the knowledge obtained by the scientific method should be accessible again after repeatable experiments. In this respect, the scientific method differs from the religious method, which is often revelation-based; In religious knowledge, the essence is often revelation, whereas revelation is not a scientific method since it is not a repeatable experiment[93]. Although differentiated and subject-specific scientific methods are used in different branches of science and different knowledge subjects, some general points form the basis of scientific methods. Usually scientists, researchers they propose hypotheses to explain the nomen largely using the information at hand[94][95]; then they prepare various experiments to test these hypotheses[94] and according to the results of the experiments, the truth or falsity of a hypothesis is revealed [95]. Sometimes the correctness of a hypothesis is accepted as a result of certain experiments; later it can be proved wrong by different experiments[94]. For this reason, all kinds of hypotheses can be tested continuously. In terms of scientific method, sharing and archiving the information obtained as a result of scientific methods is very important because it is an inevitable necessity in terms of the knowledge that will be generated as a result of the scientific method that experiments and tests related to the same or different methods can be repeated, reproduced and performed in the light of this information. hypothesis approaches theory[94].

Scientific circles and community

The scientific community consists of many scientists and related institutions who specialize in many different branches of science and conduct research in different branches.

Sciences

Different branches of science, or fields, have become specialized and developed over time. Often at the academic level, the branching of the sciences is handled in two main categories. The natural sciences (or natural sciences) that study and study natural phenomena, and the social and humanities that study and study society, the individual, and human activities and behaviour. Sciences such as biology, physics and chemistry are examples of natural sciences, while sciences such as sociology and anthropology are examples of social sciences. There have been a wide variety of relations between these basic fields, and many interdisciplinary branches have emerged, especially in the last century, as there are many applied disciplines related to these fields such as engineering and medicine; such as cybernetics[96], econophysics[97] and medical anthropology[98].

Mathematics is often included in the formal sciences category, which is a third category distinct from these two main categories; because there are many points where it is close and far from both natural sciences and social sciences. While mathematics is close to natural sciences in terms of the objective, careful and systematic examination of a particular field of knowledge, it differs in that it does not contain empirical methods as a method of investigation; knowledge acquired in mathematics is verified a priori, not empirical methods. The formal sciences category includes statistics and logic sciences as well as mathematics. These two sciences, together with mathematics, have an important place in terms of all sciences, especially empirical sciences; For example, various developments in the formal sciences have also led to great developments in the physical and biological sciences. As a matter of fact, the formal sciences play a vital role in the formation of hypotheses, theories and laws, both in the exploration and description of how things work and are (natural sciences) and how people think and behave (social and human sciences).

Whether the social sciences are an empirical science or not has been a matter of debate since the 20th century. Around these debates, some of the social and behavioral branches faced criticism that they were not scientific. Some scholars (for example, Nobel Prize-winning physicist Percy W. Bridgman,[99]) and some politicians (for example, U.S. Senator Kay Bailey Hutchinson[100]) even consider some branches as non-specific, ambiguous, or scientifically irrelevant relative to other disciplines. They avoided using the word "science".

French: During his visit to the Académie des sciences, XIV. Louis, 1671

Institutions

Scientific societies aiming to share, communicate and promote scientific ideas, experiments and findings have been encountered since the Renaissance period.[101] The oldest surviving institution is the Italian: Accademia dei Lincei in Italy.[102] Beginning with the British Royal Society in 1660[103] and in 1666 with the French French: Académie des Sciences[104], national academies of science are outstanding scientific research and knowledge institutions with societies in many countries.

Many international scientific organizations, such as the International Council for Science, have been established to promote and promote cooperation between scientific communities and communities of different nations.

Write

To date, an enormous variety of scientific literature has been published and continues to be published.[105] Scientific journals document and communicate the results of research conducted at universities and various other research institutions; Therefore, they function as an archival record of scientific research and studies. The first scientific journals, the Journal des Sçavans, followed by Philosophical Transactions, began to be published in 1665. Since then, the total number of regular publications has increased steadily, according to an estimate made in 1981. The number of scientific and technical journals was 11,500.[106]

Many scientific journals cover a particular branch of science and publish and present research in that field; research is normally in the format of a scientific thesis. Science is so pervasive and influential in contemporary societies that it is often necessary to convey the achievements, news, and enthusiasm of scientists to a wider audience.

Scientific journals, such as New Scientist or Scientific American, cater to the needs of a wider readership and provide non-technical summaries of many popular research areas, including notable discoveries and developments in some areas of research. Also, superficially, the genre of science fiction, though fundamentally fantastical in nature, captivates the imagination of society in general and conveys scientific ideas, perhaps not scientific methods.

Criticisms and discussions
Science, pseudoscience and non-science

Main article: Pseudoscience

Any established body of knowledge that cannot gain legitimacy on its own and therefore tries to legitimize itself by pretending to be science is not considered a science; these are often called fringe science or alternative science. Their greatest shortcoming is their lack of carefully controlled and thoroughly scrutinized and interpreted experiments that contribute to the development of the sciences, as in the natural sciences. Another term is garbage science. Junk science is actually the use of various scientific theories and data that can be considered legitimate and correct, incorrectly or mistakenly, to defend an opposing side. There are often ideological or political biases and factors in the use of the term. A wide variety of commercial advertisements also fall into this category. Finally, apart from and distinct from these terms, there may be well-meaning but incorrect, obsolete, incomplete or over-simplified displays and manifestations of scientific ideas.

It has been a matter of debate whether many knowledge bodies and branches are really science (branches). Controversy and disagreements on this issue are quite large, and some fields, such as the social and behavioral sciences, have been accused of being unscientific by various critics. Many people from different fields, such as some academics, such as Nobel Prize-winning physicist Percy W. Bridgman,[99] and some politicians, such as US Senator Kay Bailey Hutchinson,[100] refer to certain branches that they consider non-specific, ambiguous, or scientifically irrelevant compared to other branches. They avoided using the word "science". Some philosophers have also offered different ideas in this respect; For example, Karl Popper denied the existence of the scientific method[107] and evidence[108]. According to Popper, there is only one universal method; negative trial and error method. This is science, mathematics, philosophy, art, etc. It covers all the products of the human mind, including the evolution of life.[109] In addition, Popper contributed to the discussion of positivism, a philosophical debate about the methodology of the social sciences between critical rationalism (Popper, Albert) and the Frankfurt School (Adorno, Habermas).[110]

Philosophical perspective and focus

Historian Jacques Barzun defined science as "a belief as fanatical as any other belief in history" and warned against the use of scientific thought to suppress thoughts of meaning that are complementary to human existence.[111] Many contemporary thinkers, such as Carolyn Merchant, Theodor W. Adorno, and E. F. Schumacher, saw that the scientific revolution in the 17th century shifted science from a focus on understanding nature or wisdom to a focus on using (manipulating) nature for its own benefit, and that science's manipulation of nature eventually inevitably included humans. They thought that it would cause them to manipulate.[112] In addition, the fact that quantitative measurements are in the focus of science has led to criticism that science cannot see important qualitative aspects of the world.[112]

The results of the ideological rejection of ethics and work ethic in the execution of science in various forms such as dishonesty, plagiarism and data tampering have been criticized and vilified by many academics. Philosopher Bernard Rollin, in his work named "Science and Ethics", examines the ideological view that rejects the relation of ethics and morality with science and argues that teaching the basic understanding of ethics and rules is an indispensable and inseparable element of scientific education.[113]

Media and science debate

Mass media is subjected to various pressures that prevent competing scientific claims from fully and accurately reflecting the acceptability and credibility of these claims in the scientific community. Determining how much weight should be given to different parties in a scientific debate requires expertise and knowledge of the subject of the debate.[114] Few journalists are truly scientific. Even a journalist with knowledge of certain scientific issues, as well as his clothing, may suddenly know little about the other scientific issues he needs to report on.[115][116]

Epistemological deficiencies

According to psychologist Carl Jung, although science tries to fully understand every aspect of nature, the experimental methods used will only raise artificial and limited questions, so only partial answers can be reached.[117] Robert Anton Wilson criticized science by arguing that the answers produced by the tools that science uses to ask questions are only meaningful answers in terms of the tools used, and that there is no completely objective point of view from which scientific findings can be examined.[118]

Science and religion

Galileo against the Roman Inquisition

The relationship between science and religion can be examined in the light of their explanations about the realities of life. While religious doctrines and reasons influenced the development of science from time to time, scientific knowledge also affected religious beliefs.

Religion and science are two ways of thinking that have been in constant conflict with each other throughout history. In a general sense, both aim to explain the universe; but the methods they use and the worldviews they adhere to are very different. Science uses observation and observational logical thinking to detect and explain facts. However, religion, not much different from metaphysics, is based on reasoning that is disconnected from facts, mixed with love, belief and emotion. In terms of worldview, we can call one a realist-rationalist and the other a mystic-rationalist. To make this comparison more concrete, it is necessary to specify the main features that make up religion and to find the exact point where it conflicts with science. When all major religions are examined, it is seen that these three elements or functions exist in their structures:

Some moral rules,
Certain forms of worship
A system of beliefs of a metaphysical nature.

The conflict of science and religion is only in terms of the last point. Because at this point, religion has become a partner in the effort of science to explain the universe and make it understandable for people. Religion has certain beliefs (metaphysical hypotheses) on the origin, establishment and functioning of the universe. Each of these beliefs is dogmatic; there is no doubt about its accuracy. Moreover, there is no possibility of scientifically verifying the metaphysical hypotheses that religion accepts with indisputable certainty. For example, one of these beliefs or hypotheses concerns the existence of God. Almost all developed religions are based on the claim that there is a God with certain characteristics. However, neither the truth nor the falsity of this assertion can be determined by recourse to observation and experiment. Religions defend the accuracy of their claims on this subject by resorting to other means (revelation, intuition, holy book, traditional authority and similar sources). Ultimately, the acceptance or rejection of such an argument remains a matter of personal belief. Neither the believer can prove the truth of his belief, nor the denial can scientifically prove his denial. So much so that it is logically impossible for both to be true.

Religion, unlike science, does not accept any correction, improvement or change in its belief system. Since it does not allow for the possibility of error, there is no possibility of clearing mistakes through self-criticism. Every religious belief is based on a claim to absolute and universal truth. However, no theory in science claims certainty; It does not rule out the possibility that sooner or later it will be changed or even rejected altogether. The conflict between religion and science seems to continue as long as religion does not abandon its metaphysical teachings to explain the universe without relying on facts. Because there is no way to reconcile such beliefs with scientific findings and truths that are gradually increasing in scope.[119]

Detail from a stained glass by Tiffany at Yale University: Science and religion are depicted in harmony.

When considered on the basis of individuals, it is seen that throughout history, some thinkers have argued that science and religion are irreconcilable and opposing pursuits -this is due to the fact that science in general is based on questioning, and religion requires believing without questioning-, while some thinkers claim the opposite. Particularly in certain periods of the 19th century, he gained the view that religion and science were in opposition to each other. According to the opposition, opposition thesis developed in these periods, any interaction between science and religion will always lead to conflict, and religion will be the aggressor against new scientific ideas.[120] Although this understanding was tried to be popularized by names such as John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White in the 19th century, it was not sufficient to explain the historical and current interaction between science and religion, from moments of conflict to moments of cooperation.[121] As a matter of fact, important names in the history of Western science such as Copernicus[122], Galileo, Kepler and Boyle, as well as Ibn-i Sina[123], Biruni[124] and İbn-i Heytham[125] i Important figures in the history of oriental science were people of faith. However, there have also been issues where science and religion clashed throughout history, and there are still those who argue that science and religion cannot be reconciled. For example, British evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins strongly argues that science and religion cannot be reconciled.[126]

Throughout history, there have been those who have tried to combine religion and science, claiming that there are methods that do not contradict each other, and even think that they complement each other. The American biologist Kenneth R. Miller is in this category.[127] From time to time, there have been those who tried to explain religious opinions with scientific methods or scientific opinions with religious methods. For example, Avicenna tried to explain the existence of God through reason and logic.[128] In addition, especially in the modern era, some have argued that science and religion are independent of each other, that they deal with unrelated aspects of human experience, and that they can therefore coexist seamlessly within their own domains, unless they interfere with each other's domains. But this has not been possible.[129]

Technology ("craft science", Greek: τέχνη; techno, "craft, skill, handicraft"; and Greek: -λογία; -logy[3]) skills, methods used in the production of goods or services or in the achievement of objectives therefor , procedures, compilation of techniques, or scientific research. Technology techniques, processes etc. The information may be located in machines, computers, various devices or factories. An individual can run things like this without detailed knowledge.

Technology started with the use of natural resources by humans as a simple tool. It is the discovery of how to control fire in prehistory, the techniques used in production to increase supplies of ready-made food in the Neolithic Revolution, and the tools and technology of the wheel so that people can control their environment as well as travel. Throughout history, developments in printing and printing, telephone and internet have enabled people to freely communicate and interact on a global scale. The continued advancement of military technology has led to the development of simple weapons such as batons, as well as technologies such as nuclear weapons of great destructive power.

Technology has many other effects along with these. Technology has also helped economies further develop, including today's global economy, and the rise of the prominent entertainment class. Due to undesirable by-products with many technological processes, natural environmental damage of the Earth, also known as environmental pollution, has occurred. Natural resources began to run out. Various applications of technology have often caused new ethical problems in society. It affected some of its values. For example, there has been an increase in the concept of efficiency, which has traditionally been specified only for the machine, and this has been used in the same sense in terms of human productivity.

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Bibliography

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^ Constable, George; Somerville, Bob (2003). A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievement. nts That Transformed Our Lives. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 0-309-08908-5. Archived from the original on April 4, 2012. Accessed on September 22, 2016.
^ Liddell, Henry George and Robert Scott (1980). A Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged Version). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-910207-4.